Citizen Participation in the Budgetary Accountability

Introduction Citizens’ participation in the budgetary and financial processes is aimed at ensuring good governance, provision of public goods and general accountability1. There are three fundamental reasons behind the attempts to increase citizens’ participation in the matters of governance and policy-making.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Citizen Participation in the Budgetary Accountability specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More First, civil society and non-governmental organizations (NGO’s) are increasingly calling for the participation of the stakeholders in political matters and policy-making decisions. Citizens are clamouring for access to information and the right to participate in local and national matters. In addition, the current democratic processes demand for open governance, transparency in policy decisions and open budgetary processes2. Second, reformist lawmakers and government off icials, seeking to approve the authenticity and capability of the civil society in solving social-political and economic challenges, are increasingly supporting citizens’ participation. This is driven by both political and policy incentives. Direct subject support can give extra authenticity to help reformist governments modify budgetary needs3. Besides, coordinate investment guarantees a steady stream of data between the state agencies, natives and common society, hence lessens the cost of exchanging data.4. Reformist governments also advance participatory venues in light of the fact that this helps them to assemble a political base that may be actuated amid constituent procedures5. Last but not least, direct participation can help the policymakers monitor strategy execution at the local level, consequently improving the probability that government’s strategy changes are actualized accurately.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help y ou! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More By involving citizens in the budgetary processes both at the local and national level, the government can enhance its capacity due to extra mechanism to improve accountability6. Third, global organizations, for instance, the IMF and World Bank have been advocating for increased participation of citizens in policy decisions and budgetary processes. The main reason for this is to enhance the government’s capacity, which is progressively perceived to be essential in achieving long term goals and objectives. Direct citizen participation enhances state capacity by improving the quality of inputs at the same time letting citizens to play the role of a watchdog. Worldwide associations also support direct native investment as a method of engaging the common man and creating a compact social capital. The global organizations believe that citizens and civil societies can hold the government accountable for the use of public reso urces, hence ensuring that donor funds are used for the intended purpose7. An ongoing concept that cuts across these organizations is that they are looking for ways of designing institutions that can bring the citizens together in order to take part in solving key policy issues and governance challenges. Institutional planners have made an expansive scope of rules and strategies that address an array of societal and policy issues. In each case, they are trying everything possible to ensure that the government and citizens work together for a common good8. The citizen’s participation is highly regarded not because there are benefits linked to their full participation in the local and national matters, but it is supported because their increased participation can enhance the nature of governance and the general welfare of the people.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Citizen Participation in the Budgetary Accountability specifically for you for on ly $16.05 $11/page Learn More For that reason, direct engagement of citizens is the best way of solving key policy issues and governance challenges9. Enhancing the quality of engagement is progressively entangled with attempts to advance straightforwardness in the working of governments and private sector. Transparency call for public officials to give prompt and relevant information that can be utilized by citizens and civil society10. In any case, transparency endeavours need to be connected to participation on the ground since the release of information is simply the initial step11. Direct participation is crucial since it guarantees a high level of transparency. In addition, it ensures that the criteria of choosing pertinent data and the schedule of its release are not left to the discretion of public officers. More extensively, collaboration is imperative so that the accessible data can be used to make elective arrangements and strategies. After all, lack of acce ss to vital information in the context of disinterested or detached citizens and civil society will not bring about progressed government approaches and policy solutions12. Natives and common society represent the interest side of policy deliberation. Hence, they give elective answers to approach issues. The other side is represented by policies initiated by the government and international donors aimed at solving policy challenges. The demand and supply sides are models that were adapted to fit into the field of socioeconomic development. Therefore, in the wider scope of this essay, transparency will be conceptualized as what the regime needs to provide or avail to improve accountability.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the other hand, participation will be conceptualized as the activities that the citizens and civil society need to take part in so as to improve accountability13. Improved accountability calls for greater collaboration between state agencies, government officials, civil society and the general public. State authorities must be ready to permit their activities to be investigated by non-governmental organizations and civil society. Correspondingly, citizens and civil society must be prepared to dedicate their time and vitality to meticulously inspect the exercises of state.14. Accountability can be established when state departments and agencies are ready to be investigated to win public trust or gain a political mileage. In addition, governments may be ready to support transparency in those ranges where they accept that accountability would be politically beneficial, which implies that the public and civil society should put more pressure on the government to avail all the necessa ry information15. This essay will have two fundamental objectives. The first objective is to introduce a framework that can help to understand how citizens and civil society can participate in the budgetary process and other financial initiatives. The explanation behind presenting this framework is that it will explore diverse courses through which citizens and civil societies are integrated into key government decisions. The second objective is to apply it on the two countries to show how and why they have embraced diverse establishments and strategies. The second objective will attempt to establish the reasons and objectives behind the initiatives. Citizen Participation Citizens participate in a mixed bag of institutions. In law based administrations, citizens vote to choose delegates at neighbourhood, territorial, and national levels. Citizens might likewise vote in unique decisions, for example, submissions, plebiscites or reviews. In addition, citizens may influence elected lea ders by operating within certain establishments or engaging in activities such as campaigns, arranging appeal drives, and coming up with certain policy propositions. Therefore, participation is a progressing action in which residents work together to advance their interests16. As a matter of fact, there are numerous ways through which citizens can influence formal arrangements. They can make use of the institutions, court procedures and public protests to place their case on government officials. Petulant legislative issues have a tendency to be utilized more regularly by citizens who need access to open establishments or lack political representatives17. There are four principal aspects of the citizen participation process, namely: voice, scrutiny, voting and rescission. Besides the mentioned participatory venues, citizens can also utilize other venues such as, opinion through the ballot, controversial politics, campaigns and neighbourhood initiatives18. However, our emphasis will be on the ways through which citizens take part in budgetary accountability. This is represented by the four principal aspects of citizens’ participation. Voice refers to the capacity of citizens to communicate their thoughts, inclinations, and sentiments within and outside the institutions sanctioned by the government. At the highest level, citizens and civil societies can use this facet of participation to extend the scope of issues that are being tended to by the existing institutions. The issue can touch on specific policy problem. Public debates are some of the venues that can be used by citizens to express their voice. The formal gatherings permit citizens and civil societies to fortify their arrangements, as well as be incorporated in the prescribed networks19. On the other hand, scrutiny is the capacity of citizens to audit archives and data given by government institutions and agencies. These archives may incorporate policy proposals, contract negotiations, income ac cumulation, progressive execution of open work tasks, and project conclusion20. Citizens are required to have fundamental skills necessary for analysing and reporting the data provided by the government. When the citizens have the necessary skills to dissect government policies, their voice may be more focused and agenda-driven. The scrutiny procedure enables citizens to link up with the government and its partners on specific issues touching on government recommendations21. In some cases, citizens are given liberty to vote for government policy proposals. The votes can either be binding or consultative. A binding vote can either rebuff or approve policy proposals and, therefore, is the most powerful form of vote. A binding vote provides execution powers. On the contrary, a consultative vote is simply an opinion over the general proposed policy. It does not warrant a direct action. However, it can have a considerable impact on policy decisions, especially when the voting process is sanctioned by the government. Both binding and consultative vote calls for an establishment that can help in building residents’ voice and verifying techniques. Citizens and civil societies can be able to practice more robust, and informed voting only when the aforementioned condition is met22. Citizens and civil society can have the power to rescind government proposals, annual reports and audit reports. This power is a kind of vote, yet is different on the grounds that citizens and civil society are not voting in favour of particular strategy recommendations, but are dismissing government projects and operations. This is like the presidential veto, where the head of state can rebuff enactment of particular laws or policies. This kind of power clearly expands on voice and scrutiny. Citizens and civil society can make more use of this power to comprehend government policy proposals or activities. Veto power and voice can be useful in generating support both within and outside the public domain23. In entirety, the four aspects of participation offer a means to evaluate how public institutions engage citizens and civil societies in the budgetary and fiscal processes. Citizens and civil societies have different powers in these institutions. Sometimes, citizens have the power to articulate their views and concerns, which is a vital development. In other cases, citizens are more involved in the implementation and monitoring process, which is likewise an imperative development. The four aspects of participation are the best examples of how the government, citizens and civil society interact or engage each other in matters of public interest24. The Civil Society The civil society is normally comprised of ordinary citizens, community heads, institutions that represent the people, professionals from different fields, socio-political movements, and non-administrative associations among others. These groups are very different from government officials. They have d iverse forms of authority, which is associated with their expertise and moral basis of their claims25. A standout amongst the most widely recognized political inquiries in participatory foundations is â€Å"who are the genuine representatives of civil society?†. There is no simple answer to this question due to the diverse nature of civil society. Governments planning to create new institutions for engaging citizens need to place this question at the beginning of every dialogue as they create new establishments. As the administration tries to fabricate new establishments, it must address the following issues that have been with us since time immemorial: Should choices be in light of the tenet of the lion’s share? In what manner can the enthusiasm of the minorities, be dealt with? Should engagement be in light of individual or gathering premise? What are the essential skills required in order to participate in the decision-making process? When should the participating i nstitutions concede to the opinions of experts or leaders? Do citizens have the power to sanction or reject government initiatives? Assuming this is the case, do these powers have a limit? Common citizens are most likely to be included in decisions made at local or sub-national level due to their broad knowledge of local affairs, but limited skills. They can help public officials make informed decisions when allocating local resources. Some of the initiatives sanctioned by the government to expand citizen participation include annual budget conference and communal projects. The mobilization can be done by community heads26. At the national level, more emphasis is placed on individuals with legal or technical expertise. As a result, these individuals are always involved directly in the budget implementation and monitoring process. They can participate in the budgetary process in two ways. First, they can take part in the local discussions, but their proposals and interests are transf erred to the national summit. Second, they can articulate their ideas and interests in extremely wide terms, enabling them to be supportive of the general arrangement. Nevertheless, there can be a huge difference in the sort of voice exercised by citizens, from voting on the choice of particular items to general items that are of priority. The civil society and organizations representing the will and interests of the people normally take part directly in national-level policies and budget talks. Individual citizens are less likely to take part in national-level debates, but can take part in countrywide processes27. Case Studies Many regimes now engage nationals in policy decisions. To understand how governments engage their citizens in policy decisions, we will carry out a case study of two countries. In this case, the two nations are Brazil and Philippines. The selection of the two cases has turned out to be very fruitful since the two nations are currently using a wide range of pr ograms to enhance transparency, involvement and accountability. It is important to note that Brazil and Philippines are on the excellent path of reform, and this will help in comprehending the conceivable outcomes and parameters of progress. There are a number of significant similarities among the two nations that will be of great help in explaining why the two governments are increasing citizen participation and encouraging transparency. Each of them had a tyrant administration from 1960s to 1980s. They swung to law based governance in the late 1980s and have remained so until now. Moreover, the two nations have seen the resurrection of non-state actors, proclamation of the new constitution and advancement of devolution. Brazil: Citizen Participation in the Budgetary Accountability Major reforms in Brazil started with President Cradoso who expanded Brazil’s capacity to promote transparency and accountability through mass participation. He began by building institutions, priv atising state-owned companies and demanding a thorough clean up in the public sector. He also introduced the fiscal responsibility law, which provided a framework of spending government resources and mechanism for guaranteeing budgetary transparency28. In the past three decades, the country has expanded a number of participatory venues, which allows citizens to take part in an array of policymaking decisions. There are four fundamental institutions that permit citizens to take part in the budgetary process. These institutions include Public Policy Management Councils (PPMCs), Public Policy Conferences (PPC), Pluriannual Budget Planning (PBP), and Participatory Budgeting (PB). PPMC, PPC and PBP are embraced from the local to national level. However, PB is only adopted at the municipal level29. Participatory budgeting is a year-long process that brings together municipal official and citizens to decide over capital spending on the current and future projects. PB has been adopted by nu merous municipalities and participants are mainly volunteers. The table below demonstrates PB programs between 1989 and 2012 in municipalities with over 50 thousand inhabitants. Over 50 percent of the PB cases were managed by workers unions, which highlight the role of politics in the adoption of PB. As a matter of fact, PB has attracted very many youths into political positions30. As already been mentioned, PPMCs are established at all levels of the government. Currently, the country has approximately 70000 councils at the district level. Generally, the council’s top seats are shared equally between the state and non-state actors. The council has the power to sanction or reject the budgetary process through a vote and, therefore, it has the veto power. Truth be told, PPMCs is being utilized as a condition by the administration for disbursing national resources. 31. The table below shows the explosion of PPMCS in the last decades. The increase in the number of councils is ma inly attributed to the federal government that had made it mandatory for all public institutions and organizations to have a management council. However, some public institutions and organizations adopted it voluntarily32. Pluriannual Budget Planning (PBP) is a national level budgetary planning process introduced by President Lula da Silva. This was after a number of reports showed that the country had heavily invested in sub-national level programs and was lacking in national-level programs. Pluriannual Budget Planning, which is conducted yearly, was premised on the PPMCs’ model. The ministry of planning is tasked with the responsibility of providing all the pertinent data. It comprises of representatives from different sectors, including the civil society, private sector and state officials. The participants are directly involved in the budgetary process. However, there is no information accessible to recommend that the arrangements are actualized by the government33. Publ ic Policy Conferences (PPC) also known as the national policy conferences attract millions of participants. In the last 75 conferences, it has attracted more than 8 million participants. These conferences have given millions of Brazilians a platform to participate in the policymaking decisions. These conferences focus on a wide range of subjects, including transparency and social control, federal budgetary processes, human rights and many more. Nevertheless, the country’s expansive federal states make it very hard to establish the level of transparency and accountability in the public sector. However, the country‘s emphasis is to incorporate as many citizens in the budgetary accountability and transparency programs34. Philippines: Citizen Participation in the Budgetary Accountability Philippine is one of the countries with the greatest devotion in advancing citizen participation and transparency. The current president’s campaign platform was to stop corruption an d destitution. By associating corruption to all the problems facing the country, he drew attention to all the fundamental subjects of governance. Therefore, the core agenda of the current regime is tackling corruption, especially in the public sector. Importantly, the core elements of enhancing the quality of governance include direct engagement and giving more power to the citizens. Besides eliminating corruption in the public sector, the country’s reform agenda include establishments of new institutions that will generate new prospects to alter the pattern of public expenditure and ensure transparency and accountability35. Due to lack of high level state capacity and pervasive civil society as witnessed in Brazil, the Philippines used a diverse participatory strategy. They are less likely to adopt citizen-based strategies used in Brazil due to the disintegration of its social fabric and low capacity of its citizens. As a result, they are mixing citizen-based strategies, usu ally at the sub-national level, with extensive engagement of civil societies36. The deliberate efforts of the Philippines government to increase citizens’ participation in the budgetary process and ensure accountability in the public sector include National Fund for Participatory Governance, Base-Up Budgeting, Budget Partnership Accord, Complete Disclosure Strategy, and Citizen Engagement Review37. Base-Up Budgeting was borrowed from Latin America. It involves engaging rural community movements and individual citizens in determining funds to be allocated at the local level. This leads to the creation of a local poverty reduction team to implement and monitor funded projects. The team comprises of the communal chiefs, state representatives and common organizations. Base-Up approach targets poor communities. As of 2013, more than 1100 poor municipal communities had adopted the approach with the government allocating in excess of $190 million for the projects38. Budget Partnersh ip Accord brings together agencies and the civil society in the preparation of the budget. This allows the government and the civil society to work closely in identifying priority projects. The civil society is also involved in the implementation process. Base-Up Budgeting and Budget Partnership Accord have been commended by the international community as the best methods of empowering citizens39. National Fund is a stipend given by the Treasury to non-state actors to bolster cooperation of subjects and the administration in national matters. As a result, the civil society acts as intermediate finance managers40. On the other hand, Complete Disclosure Strategy is a reward system exemplifying all facets of accountability and transparency at the local government units. It requires full disclosure of information to the public. In order to advance this, the administration has dispatched an online entry where all the administrative data can be accessed by the citizens. 41. To wrap things up, the Citizen Engagement Review is an institutional body that unites intrigued nationals and state authorities. This body enhances access to government information necessary for the implementation and evaluation of the budget process42. Comparing and evaluating the two cases The programs aimed at increasing citizens’ participation in governance and accountability in the Philippines have created two changes. First, more citizens are joining state-approved institutions to play some part in governance and decision making. Second, the government has increased the number participatory institutions to promote citizen’s participation in the local and national affairs, particularly in the budgeting and fiscal processes. However, in comparison to Brazil, Philippine is still lagging behind with respect to structural foundations that support citizens’ participation and accountability. This means the country is more likely to make significant policy changes in the near f uture. The disparity is attributed to the fact that the Brazil’s reform process started like three decades ago, whereas the Philippines process has only lasted a decade. In addition, Philippines lack high level state capacity and pervasive civil society. Lastly, the country is less reliant on experts owing to the fact that the government’s main agenda is citizen empowerment. As a result, it employs mixed strategies that incorporate citizens at the sub-national level and civil societies at the highest level. Conclusion From the analysis of the two countries, it is apparent that four facets affect citizen’s participation in the budgetary process. The first factor is the political will of the existing regime. The second factor is the organization of the civil society. The third factor is the state’s capacity. The last factor is the path of policy reforms. Citizens and the civil society can either support or challenge government decisions. As a result, citize ns and civil society can work together with the government, but also hold it to account for public resources. The citizen participation process is based on four principal aspects, namely: voice, scrutiny, voting and rescission. The Brazilian process incorporates all the four aspects. However, the Philippines do not have the veto power. Nevertheless, whatever the methodology utilized, the fundamental target is to expand resident support and enhance straightforwardness and responsibility. The participatory initiatives in Brazil and Philippines are mainly driven by politics and reform agenda. Even though non-state actors have played a role in pushing the two governments to expand citizen participation, there is no evidence to suggest that they have been pushed by international organizations. Bibliography Alt, J. E. Lassen, D., ‘Transparency, Political Polarization, and Political Budget Cycles in OECD Countries’, American Journal of Political Science, vol. 50, no. 3, 2006, pp. 530–50. Avritzer, L., Democracy and the Public Space in Latin America, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2002. Carltz, R., Improving Transparency and Accountability in the Budget Process: An Assessment of Recent Initiatives, University of California, Los Angeles, 2013. de Renzio, P. Masud, H., ‘Measuring and Promoting Budget Transparency: The Open Budget Index as a Research and Advocacy Tool’, Governance, vol. 24, no. 3, 2011, pp. 607–16. de Renzio, P. Angemi, D., ‘Comrades or Culprits? Donor Engagement and Budget Transparency in Aid-Dependent Countries’, Public Administration and Development, vol. 32, no. 2, 2011, pp.167–80. Ferraz, C. Finan, F., ‘Exposing Corrupt Politicians: The Effects of Brazil’s Publicly Released Audits on Electoral Outcomes’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol.123, no. 2, 2012, pp. 703–45. Fung, A., Mary, G. David, W., Full Disclosure: The Perils and Promise of Transparen cy, Cambridge University Press, 2007. Gianpaolo, B., Heller, P. Silva, M., Bootstrapping Democracy: Transforming Local Governance and Civil Society in Brazil, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 2011. Hunter, W., ‘The Normalization of an Anomaly: The Workers’ Party in Brazil’,  World Politics, vol. 59, 2007, pp.440–75. IMF, Code of Good Practices on Fiscal Transparency, International Monetary Fund, Washington, 2007. Magno, F., Country Report: The Philippines, Global Initiative for Fiscal Transparency, 2013. McNulty, S., Voice and Vote: Decentralization and Participation in Post-Fujimori Peru, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 2011. Montero, A. P. David, J.S., Decentralization and Democracy in Latin America, University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, 2004. Wampler, B., Participatory Budgeting in Brazil: Contestation, Cooperation, and Accountability, Pennsylvania State University Press, Pennsylvania, 2007. Wampler, B., Participation, Transparency an d Accountability, Global Initiative for Fiscal Transparency, 2013. Footnotes 1 J. E. Alt D. Lassen, ‘Transparency, Political Polarization, and Political Budget Cycles in OECD Countries’, American Journal of Political Science, vol. 50, no. 3, 2006, p. 531. 2 B. Gianpaolo, P. Heller M. Silva, Bootstrapping Democracy: Transforming Local Governance and Civil Society in Brazil, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 2011, p. 5. 3 R. Carltz, Improving Transparency and Accountability in the Budget Process: An Assessment of Recent Initiatives, University of California, Los Angeles, 2013, p. 28. 4 Carltz, p. 32. 5 Alt Lassen, p. 541. 6 P. de Renzio H. Masud, ‘Measuring and Promoting Budget Transparency: The Open Budget Index as a Research and Advocacy Tool’, Governance, vol. 24, no. 3, 2011, p. 609. 7 P. de Renzio D. Angemi, ‘Comrades or Culprits? Donor Engagement and Budget Transparency in Aid-Dependent Countries’, Public Administration and Developm ent, vol. 32, no. 2, 2012, pp.170. 8 IMF, Code of Good Practices on Fiscal Transparency, International Monetary Fund, Washington, 2007, p. 13. 9 B. Wampler, Participation, Transparency and Accountability, Global Initiative for Fiscal Transparency, 2013, p. 98. 10 L. Avritzer, Democracy and the Public Space in Latin America, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2002, p.11. 11 Ibid. 12 Carltz, p. 35. 13 Ibid. 14C. Ferraz F. Finan, Exposing Corrupt Politicians: The Effects of Brazil’s Publicly Released Audits on Electoral Outcomes’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol.123, no. 2, 2008, p. 707. 15 W. Hunter, ‘The Normalization of an Anomaly: The Workers’ Party in Brazil’, World Politics, vol. 59, 2007, p.453. 16 A.P. Montero J.S. David, Decentralization and Democracy in Latin America, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Press, 2004, p.7. 17 B. Wampler, Participation, Transparency and Accountability, Global Initiative for Fiscal Transparency, 2013, p. 102. 18 S. McNulty, Voice and Vote: Decentralization and Participation in Post-Fujimori Peru, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 2011, p.6. 19 McNulty, p. 8. 20 Ibid. 21 McNulty, p. 9. 22 Ibid. 23 B.Wampler, Participatory Budgeting in Brazil: Contestation, Cooperation, and Accountability, State University Press, Pennsylvania, 2007, p. 28. 24 Wampler, p.30. 25 Gianpaolo, Heller Silva, p. 7. 26 Ibid. 27 Gianpaolo, Heller Silva, p. 10. 28 B. Wampler, Participatory Budgeting in Brazil: Contestation, Cooperation, and Accountability, State University Press, Pennsylvania, 2007, p. 19. 29 Wampler, p. 20. 30 Wampler, p. 21. 31 Gianpaolo, Heller Silva, p. 65. 32 Gianpaolo, Heller Silva, p. 67. 33 Wampler, p. 106. 34 Wampler, p. 107. 35 F. Magno, Country Report: The Philippines, Global Initiative for Fiscal Transparency, 2013, p. 3. 36 Magno, p. 4. 37 Wampler, p. 113. 38 Wampler, p. 114. 39 Magno, p. 4. 40 Wampler, p. 115. 41 A. Fung, Mary David, Full Disclosure: The Perils and Prom ise of Transparency, Cambridge University Press, 2007, p. 7. 42 Wampler, p. 116. This essay on Citizen Participation in the Budgetary Accountability was written and submitted by user Carissa E. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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Windshield Survey Reflection - Essay Example From a study on the way of life in the state, the cost of living would be rated approximately at 85. The home worth, therefore, would stand at a higher level on a scale of comparisons. In terms of the incomes by the residents, only 10% earn below the poverty line. From a random survey conducted on the members of the village, the rates of unemployment stood at an outstanding 10%. Majority of the population comprises of males, 60% while the females are 57%. From the population numbers, at least 80% of each group are said to have acquired education, even though, up to high school. A good number in the population had ventured into higher institutions of learning for further studies. The household sizes range from 3 to 5 individuals. From this Windshield survey, points of discussion that may affect the health of this community include the likelihood of high obesity rates, diabetes, cholera and accidents in the town. The number of fast food restaurants in the town stand at over 1000, justifying to the possibility of high obesity and diabetes cases, constant complaints from the area residents on contaminated water from their taps and finally lifestyles that can afford the youth vehicles to drive-some are too reckless-thus a possibility of numerous accidents in the town. This survey will look at obesity and overweight as a health indicator. Over the years, obesity has posed a great challenge to the human race and requires constant treatment. Other illnesses come about with obesity such as high blood pressure, heart failure, stroke amongst others. In this case study, this disease may not be attributed to genetic inheritance but the lifestyle of people in the area. One nursing role that may be applied in this case is advocating for a complete lifestyle change in the lives of Kasaka individuals. The nurse may advice the patients to change their dietary habits or increase the amount of hours they dedicate to physical activities. As a result, they may be in a

History of African Law

History of African Law It would be impossible to provide a history of African law without exploring the major influences of the European countries that colonised most of the African continent in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth centuries. The major legal influences in the African continent come mostly from English, French and Dutch law, as those were the main colonisers in this area. The different countries that brought their laws with them when they took over control of the particular countries have moulded the law in Africa in their own image. Some of the oldest legal systems in the world began first in Africa many thousands of years ago. For example the laws of Ancient Egypt utilised a particular type of civil code, which was based on the concept of Ma’at. The Ma’at was an informal system involving such principles of social equality and impartiality. The Maat was portrayed as being responsible for the regulation of the seasons, stars and the actions of both mortals and the deities. Some of th e laws of the countries in Northern Africa are still primarily based upon on French and Islamic law. One example of this is Algeria, which remained under direct French rule for over one hundred years and it is plain to see the French legal influences in many different areas of their legal system. Algeria became a sovereign state in 1962 but still retains many facets of Roman law that it has inherited from the French colonialists. A brief summary of the legal history of the entire African continent is impractical and so the focus of this piece will be mainly on the history of South African law as it is demonstrative of the continent as a whole, as it contains all the same themes that are present in the majority of African countries. South Africa has a mixed legal system, comprised of the combining of several distinct legal traditions. The original Dutch colonisers in the Seventeenth century brought with them a civil law system; a common law system was inherited from the later English colonisers in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth centuries, and indigenous law, often referred to as African ‘customary law’. The interrelationship between these individual traditions is very complex, with the influence of English law being the most noticeable in procedural characteristics of their legal system and set up and methods of judiciary. There is a major Roman law influence in the legal system in addition, which is most visible in its substantive private law. More recently in the late Twentieth century another component has been added to this mix and that is the constitution. This interrelation of vastly different legal systems and methods is visible throughout the continent and no exploration of the history of African law would be complete without an analysis of the individual sources of this law itself. Throughout the majority of the African continent it is most difficult to discover the history of the legal systems that were in existence prior to the Europeans arriving. The reason for this is because with the exception of a few countries such as Egypt, there was no formal written history of laws in most African countries. Seemingly to amplify this problem was the failure of the Dutch, British and other European regimes to record the laws of pre-colonial Africa. From the middle of the Seventeenth century, with the arrival of Dutch explorers in the Cape of Good Hope, the spread of the Roman-Dutch based legal system gathered momentum and quickly became the recognised legal system of not only South Africa but the majority of African countries The situation for many years in South Africa was wherever British law does not stand, Roman-Dutch law forms the fall back to which the country looks towards to ensure clarity in its law. In the case of South Africa, which is highlighted in many ot her countries including Zimbabwe, after the Second World War, Britain and the other European colonists of Africa gradually lost influence and this led to the creation of numerous Republican regimes. The Republic of South Africa was formed in 1961, but many of English laws and facets of the English legal system were incorporated into and now form the bedrock of South African law. The current situation in South Africa is that the fundamental source of laws in the country is the 1996 Constitution, which was formed by virtue of the Constitution of South Africa Act 1996. Any law or action that breaches the provisions of this Constitution is illegal. The sources of South Africas law have been briefly explored above and will now be further elaborated upon. The current position in South Africa reflects the situation in many post-colonial African nations in terms of the sources of its legal system. It is made up of the following components: Statutory law which is formed by the legislative institution It is the codified part of the South African Law. These laws are contained in Acts and various subordinate legislation, which is passed by the Parliament of South Africa Common law, which comprises of judicial precedent taken from case law, which is based on the same tradition of precedent as that which applies in England and Wales and from case law and the Roman Dutch ‘old authorities’. Roman Dutch Law, which is prevalent throughout large parts of Southern Africa, is a legal system that is fundamentally based on Roman law. This was the legal system that was operative in the Netherlands throughout the Eighteenth and Nineteenth centuries. There are many African countries whose legal systems are still based upon Roman Dutch law and Lesotho, Swaziland and Namibia are the most prominent examples. African customary law Foreign and international law. The laws of South Africa that are not contained in Acts passed by Parliament are those based on common law. The development of the Common Law system of South Africa is made possible by the fact that the South African courts follow the UK system of legal precedent or ‘stare decisis’.

Bridge To Terabithia :: essays research papers

There are many main themes in Bridge to Terabithia. One of the most important is Jesse and Leslie's magical kingdom in the woods called Terabithia. Terabithia is a small castle they built in the woods where they go to escape and have magical adventures. The "bridge" is a rope they use to swing over the dry creek. Another main theme is Jesse running every morning during the summer so he can be the fastest runner in fifth grade, only to be beat by Leslie, the new girl in town. One more theme is Jesse being the only boy in his house. He has two evil older sisters, who always get their way by whining. He has a younger sister who looks up to him and a baby sister, who of course, gets all the attention. Every time the baby cries his mother assumes it's because Jesse had something to do with it. A few main ideas are the differences between Jesse's family and Leslie's family. Jesse's family is quite poor and high strung. Jesse's mother is a housewife. She cooks; she cleans and raises the children. Jesse's father is usually angry. He works and tries to bring home some money. Until he gets laid off but even then he doesn't give up. He wakes up at the same time ever morning to go to the unemployment office. Jesse's two older sisters are Brenda and Ellie. All they do is whine to get off of doing their chores and criticize Jesse for anything. His younger sister May Belle, looks up to him but he tries to act like an older, tougher brother and doesn't give her much thought, even though he loves her. The youngest sister, Joyce Ann isn't really mentioned except when Jesse tries to push May Belle to her so she'll leave him alone and when Jesse's mother yells at him because of her. Jesse's hobbies are his art and running. Before Leslie moved in, his best friend seemed to be Miss Bessie, the cow. She would watch him run every morning. Leslie's family on the other hand is actually rich. Both her parents are writers and they decided to move because they felt they were getting too absorbed in their money and lifestyle. Leslie is an only child but even though she is it seems as if she doesn't spend much time with her father. When her father was fixing up the house and asked her to help she felt so needed and happy.

Expressing Essay

My motto used to be; you can look pretty without being pretty. People used to ask me all the time what I mean by that. The reason why I used to say that is because used to be super insecure about my appearance. That should have been pretty rare for someone who cared about their clothes as much as did. Fashion and design were my escape, when I looked nice had all the confidence in the world, I just felt so much better about myself. I felt important. I never used to tell anyone what my insecurity was but recently I have learned and realized that everyone is insecure.I believe that every life needs balance. That people should be well rounded and appreciate diversity. You should feel comfortable expressing yourself, which is really what fashion is all about. Some people try to tell us that clothes don't matter. They try to tell us that inner beauty is more important than outer. We all would like to think that people care more about what's on the inside, but that's pretty far from the tru th. How you dress says a lot about you. I do believe that everyone should respect their bodies. Eel very strongly that fashion is the easiest and most effective way to express yourself. Fashion can bring lives together. Everyone has insecurities at one time in their life, insecurities define us. But they are also a measure of our strength. The question I ask myself and others is: Can we overcome our insecurities and be proud of ourselves? Strength is our defense against the world. We need to be secure and realize we allow our insecurities to disturb our peace of mind. Feel like if you focus those insecurities on a passion or hobby your life will be more at peace.You will feel more comfortable with yourself. It's not easy to overcome insecurities. It took me awhile but I soon figured it out. We are all an abortion of society. Accepted by a few, judged by all, and rejected by most. All Of the following reasons to learn to love yourself for who you are. If you don't love yourself nobod y will. Life is full of contrasts. It has its ups and downs, rights and wrongs. It frequently fails to live up to our expectations, which is why we often at times feel disappointed.There are going to be times that no matter how hard you try you just can't accept yourself as you are. Even though you're convincing yourself that you are good enough, it just doesn't seem to work. That's because society defines beauty for you. That doesn't mean you are not. Everyone is unique in their own way. Some may say you're adorable and mom might not. You can't please everybody. If you are fat, you're a glutton. If you're thin, you're anorexic. If you read, you're a nerd. If you don't, you're stupid.If you're friendly, you're fake. If you are silent, they call you rude. You just can't do something without being labeled by the society. Labels are not important so don't change yourself just because you don't fit their standards of who you should be and what you should do. No one's perfect, not even t he people who tell you that you aren't. Even if you put your heart, soul, skills and all you have in it, you will never find he perfection you are searching for because there is always a blemish in everything.Fight the negativity of life that is bothering you and think positive all the time. So stop wishing to become someone else. Stop hating your body or your personality and love them instead. If you do, you will learn to appreciate others imperfections and eventually, you can also help them recover and discover the beauty they have within. My new motto is; always remember that you are special and different from them and that difference makes you who you really are. I hope whoever reads this understands where am coming from and takes this to heart.

Bhangra Essay Essays

Bhangra Essay Essays Bhangra Essay Paper Bhangra Essay Paper Bha?g?a ( Punjabi: ( Gurmukhi ) . ( Shahmukhi ) . ( Devanagari ) ; pronounced [ pa? ] ) is a signifier of dance and music that originated in the Punjab part. [ 1 ] Bhangra dance began as a common people dance conducted by Punjabi Sikh husbandmans ( Jatts ) to observe the coming of the crop season. The specific moves of Bhangra reflect the mode in which villagers farmed their land. This dance art further became synthesized after the divider of India. when refugees from different parts of the Punjab shared their common people dances with persons who resided in the parts they settled in. This intercrossed dance became Bhangra. The common people dance has been popularised in the western universe by Punjabi Sikhs [ 2 ] and is seen in the West as an look of South Asiatic civilization as a whole. [ 3 ] Today. Bhangra dance survives in different signifiers and manners all over the Earth – including dad music. movie soundtracks. collegiate competitions and ev en endowment shows. Bhangra dance is based on a Punjabi common people dhol round called ‘bhangra’ vocalizing and the round of the dhol membranophone. a single-stringed instrument called the iktar ( ektara ) . the tumbi and the chimta. Bhangra music nevertheless. is a signifier of music that originated in 1980s in Britain. The attendant vocals are little pairs written in the Punjabi linguistic communication called bolis. They relate to current issues faced by the vocalists and ( dil di gal ) what they truly want to state. In Punjabi common people music. the dhol’s smaller cousin. the dholki. was about ever used to supply the chief round. Nowadays the dhol is used more often in common people music nevertheless in bhangra dholki is still preferred. with and without the dholki. Extra percussion. including tabla. is less often used in bhangra as a solo instrument but is sometimes used to attach to the dhol and dholki. The dholki membranophone forms in Bhangra music bear an confidant similarity to the beat in Reggae music. This beat serves as a common yarn which allows for easy commingling between Punjabi common people and Reggae as demonstrated by such creative persons as the UK’s Apache Indian. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] In the late sixtiess and 1970s. several Punjabi Sikh bands from the United Kingdom set the phase for Bhangra to go a signifier of music alternatively of being merely a dance. The success of many Punjabi creative persons based in the United Kingdom. created a fanbase. divine new creative persons. and found big sums of support in both East and West Punjab. These creative persons. some of whom are still active today. include. Heera Group. Alaap. A. S. Kang and Apna Sangeet. Bhangra has developed as a combination of dances from different parts of the Punjab part. The term â€Å"Bhangra† now refers to several sorts of dances and humanistic disciplines. including Jhumar. Luddi. Giddha. Julli. Daankara. Dhamal. Saami. Kikli. and Gatka. * Jhumar. originally from Sandalbar. Punjab. comprises an of import portion of Punjab common people heritage. It is a graceful dance. based on a specific Jhumar beat. Dancers circle around a membranophone participant while singing a soft chorus. * A individual executing the Luddi dance topographic points one manus behind his caput and the other in forepart of his face. while rocking his caput and weaponries. He typically wears a field loose shirt and sways in a snake-like mode. Like a Jhumar terpsichorean. the Luddi terpsichorean moves around a dhol participant. * Womans have a different and much milder dance called Giddha. The terpsichoreans enact poetries called bolis. stand foring a broad assortment of topics - everything from statements with a sister-in-law to political personal businesss. The beat of the dance depends on the membranophones and the handclaps of the terpsichoreans. * Daankara is a dance of jubilation. typically performed at nuptialss. Two work forces. each keeping colourful staffs. dance around each other in a circle while tapping their sticks together in beat with the membranophones. * Dancers besides form a circle while executing Dhamal. They besides hold their weaponries high. agitate their shoulders and caputs. and cry and shriek. Dhamal is a true folk-dance. stand foring the bosom of Bhangra. * Women of the Sandalbar part traditionally are known for the Saami. The terpsichoreans dress in brilliantly colored kurtas and full flowing skirts called lehengas. * Like Daankara. Kikli features braces of terpsichoreans. this clip adult females. The terpsichoreans cross their weaponries. keep each other’s custodies. and whirl around singing common people vocals. Occasionally four misss fall in custodies to execute this dance. * Gatka is a Punjabi Sikh soldierly art in which people use blades. sticks. or stickers. Historians believe that the 6th Sikh guru started the art of Gatka after the martyrdom of 5th guru. Guru Arjan Dev. Wherever there is a big Punjabi Sikh population. there will be Gatka participants. frequently including little kids and grownups. These participants normally perform Gatka on particular Punjabi vacations. In add-on to these different dances. a Bhangra public presentation typically contains many energetic stunts. The most popular stunt is called the Moor. or Inachis io. in which a terpsichorean sits on someone’s shoulders. while another individual bents from his trunk by his legs. Two-person towers. pyramids . and assorted whirling stunts are besides popular. [ 16 ] Outfits Traditional work forces wear a chaadra while making Bhangra. A chaadra is a piece of fabric wrapped around the waist. Work force besides wear a kurta. which is a long Indian-style shirt. In add-on. work forces wear pagadi ( besides known as turbans ) to cover their caputs. In modern times. work forces besides wear turla. the fan attached to the pagadi. Colorful waistcoats are worn above the kurta. Fumans ( little balls attached to ropes ) are worn on each arm. Womans wear a traditional Punjabi frock known as a salwar kameez. long loose-fitting bloomerss tight at the mortise joint ( salwar ) and a long colourful shirt ( kameez ) . Women besides wear chunnis. colourful pieces of fabric wrapped around the cervix. These points are all really colourful and vivacious. stand foring the rich rural colourss of Punjab. [ 17 ] Besides the above. the Bhangra frock has different parts that are listed below in item: * Turla or Torla. which is a fan like adornment on the turban * Pag ( turban. a mark of pride/honor in Punjab ) . This is tied otherwise than the traditional turban one sees Sikhs erosion in the street. This turban has to be tied before each show * Kurta – Similar to a silk shirt. with about 4 buttons. really loose with embroidered forms. * Lungi or Chadar. A loose loincloth tied around the dancer’s waist. which is normally really adorned. * Jugi: A vest. with no buttons. * Rumal: Small ‘scarves’ worn on the fingers. They look really elegant and are effectual when the custodies move during the class of bhangra public presentation. . . and you can see a exposure of a bhangra dhol drummer. costumed and in full swing. Harmonizing to Sanjay Sharma. in her article. [ 11 ] she explains/points out the fact that Bhangra represents Asians and is referred to today as Asian music which accounts for the huge being of Asiatic wear and non to advert symbols as portion of their traditional dress/costumes Instruments Many different Punjabi instruments contribute to the sound of Bhangra. Although the most of import instrument is the keyboard. Bhangra besides features a assortment of twine and other membranophone instruments. The primary and most of import instrument that defines Bhangra is the dhol. The dhol is a big. high-bass membranophone. played by crushing it with two sticks – known as daggah ( deep terminal ) and tilli ( soprano terminal ) . The breadth of a dhol tegument is about 15 inches in general. and the dhol participant holds his instrument with a strap around his cervix. The twine instruments include the guitar ( both acoustic and electrical ) . bass. sitar. tumbi. fiddle and sarangi. The trap. Toms. dhad. dafli. dholki. and damru are the other membranophones. The tumbi. originally played by common people creative persons such as Lalchand Yamla Jatt and Kuldip Manak in true common people recordings and so famously mastered by chamkila. a celebrated Punjabi common people vocalist ( non bhangra vocalist ) . is a high-tone. single-string instrument. It has merely one twine. nevertheless it is hard to get the hang. The sarangi is a multi-stringed instrument. slightly similar to the fiddle and is played utilizing meends. The sapera produces a beautiful. high-pitched wiry round. while the supp and chimta add an excess. light sound to Bhangra music. Finally. the dhad. dafli. dholki. and damru are instruments that produce more drum beats. but with much less bass than the dhol membranophone.

the platypus essays

the platypus essays The platypus, apparently, is a surprisingly deep sleeper. What's more, it spends more of its time in so-called 'REM' sleep than any other mammal. These are the conclusions of a study on sleep in the platypus by Jerry M. Siegel of the Sepulveda Veterans' Affairs Medical Center, North Hills, California and colleagues. Their report appears in a special number of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society devoted to the biology of the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), celebrating the bicentenary of the discovery, in Australia, of this remarkable animal. 'REM' stands for 'rapid eye-movement' and is the kind of sleep in which the brain can be more active than in it is while awake, the animal twitches, and the eyelids flicker hence the name. In humans, REM sleep is associated with But does the platypus have an extraordinarily rich dream life? Possibly not, say the researchers: "cats, opossums, armadillos and other mammals not known for their intellectual achievements have far more REM sleep, whether calculated in hours per day or as a percentage of total sleep time, than And why study sleep in the platypus anyway? After all, the platypus is an obscure and extremely primitive creature, distantly related to humans. The answer lies in that primitive state: studying the physiology of the platypus could yield clues about the life and behaviour of the very earliest mammals. The platypus belongs to a group of mammals with very ancient roots. Apart from the platypus itself, the group the mono...

International Trade Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

International Trade Law - Essay Example The Hague Visby Rules after defining key terms such as 'carrier" (Art.1a), proceeded to define 'contract of carriage' as contract for shipment of goods "covered by a bill of lading or any similar document of title" (Art.1b). It further defined 'carriage of goods' as that period commencing "from the time when the goods are loaded on to the time they are discharged from the ship" (Art.1e). It also limits its coverage only to outgoing shipments from UK and excludes imported or ingoing goods and limits the liabilities of the common carrier. To give muscles and teeth to the provisions of the Hague Visby Rules, the UK Carriage of Goods By Sea Act of 1971 amended in 1992 was enacted (Laryea 2002,p.56). In contrast to the Hague Visby Rules, the Hamburg Rules which was an offshoot of the 1978 UN Convention On The Carriage of Goods By Sea (Yiannopoulos 1995,p.8), widened the liabilities and responsibilities of the carrier over the shipped goods and included in its ambit all carriage of goods whether exports or imports (Gillies & Moens 1998,p.183) as well as contracts for the carriage of goods whether evidenced or not by a bill of lading (Art.2). It also exonerates Of common importance to both the Hague Visby Rules and the Hamburg Rules is the extreme importance accorded to a bill of lading. Both emphasise that the bill of lading is the contract between the parties which is enforceable before the courts of law. It is the written acknowledgement of receipt of goods accompanied with the written stipulation that such goods shall be transported by the carrier, on behalf of the shipper, to a consignee at a designated place. A bill of lading must state the "condition of the goods,the date of receipt and or shipment, the leading marks necessary for identification of the goods, the quantity of the goods, the number of packages or pieces, or weight of the goods" (Laryea 2002,p.65). It is important because its contents are deemed as containing all that the parties have agreed and therefore, such bill of lading cannot be varied by parol evidence unless fraud, mistake or ambiguity is adduced. Thus, the carrier may adduce evidence that in fact, the goods h ad already been damaged at the time of shipment and that shipper is thus guilty of fraud by misdeclaration (The Tromp,1921). It is even more important because it empowers the consignee or buyer to obtain delivery from the carrier at destination after presentation of the original bill which is transmitted ahead. (This 'shipped bill of lading' shall be discussed in the latter part of this paper). Another of its importance is that it enables the buyer to sell the goods to a third party while the goods are in transit (Gillies & Moens 1998,p.125) or to transfer

Correlation analysis, linear regression (Quantitative Methods in Essay

Correlation analysis, linear regression (Quantitative Methods in Political Science) - Essay Example The value of Pearson correlation coefficient equal to 0.838 (near +1) indicates that there is a strong positive Relationship between variables Total Conflict Management Efforts and Number Mediation Efforts. The p-value equal to 0.000 indicates that correlation is significant at the 0.01 significance level. Assuming Total Conflict Management Efforts as dependent variable and Number Mediation Efforts as independent variable, a hypothesis can be formulated. If variable Total Conflict Management Efforts predicated using variable Number Mediation Efforts than the slope of the regression model will be different from zero (Doane & Seward, 2007). The null and alternate hypothesis can be written as: The high t-statistic (87.085) for Number Mediation Efforts indicates that the slope of the regression model is different from zero. This is also confirmed by p-value (0.000) of slope. Therefore, the decision is to reject the null hypothesis and accept alternate hypothesis. The high value of F-statistic (7583.83) indicates that the overall regression model is significant. It is also indicated by the p-value (0.000) of regression model. The value of coefficient of determination is equal to 0.703; this indicates that variable Number Mediation Efforts explains 70.30 percent of the variation in variable Total Conflict Management Efforts. On the other hand, Number Mediation Efforts do not explain 29.70 percent of the variation in Total Conflict Management Efforts. Total Conflict Management Efforts can be predicted using predictors (independent variables) Arbitrations in Dispute, Negotiations in Dispute, Mediators in Dispute, and Number Mediation Efforts. This can be seen by scatter plot and trend line of response variable and predictor variables (figure 2, 3, 4, and 5). The scatter plot and trend line shows that all predictor variables have positive effect on response variable, so a right-tailed test might be used. However, the default choice is a two-tailed